{N}THE OPHEL{/}

"Ophel" is the name normally used to designate the ancient city of David. 
Strictly speaking, the term "Ophel" means "tumor." It refers specifically 
to the raised terrain immediately to the south of the Mountain of the 
Temple. As the city gradually expanded across the west hill, it kept its 
ancient name of Zion. The term, "Ophel," was kept for the old city of 
David that was built on the sloping hill running down to the wall south 
of the esplanade of the Temple toward the Pool of {N}Siloam{/}. The Ophel is 
thus enclosed on the east by the {N}Kidron{/} Valley and on the west by the 
{N}Tyropoeon{/} Valley.
This triangle covering between four and five hectares conserves the 
traces of a past that is being discovered to the degree that 
archeological excavations are progressing. Little by little the history 
of the city can be read in the stones that are unearthed. It reveals its 
walls, its ancient houses, and even its ingenious works carried out over 
the course of centuries to conceal the spring of Gihon from possible 
enemies. Here one understands the role that the Holy City has played in 
the history of the world and of believers.
{K}- CITY OF DAVID{/}

Since the end of the XIX century Archeologists began taking interest in 
the history of Jerusalem. The great works begun on the eastern slope of 
the Ophel since 1962 and the latest excavations have brought to light 
extremely valuable information about the City of David. 
{K}ORIGINS{/}

The Ophel had been occupied since the IV millennium BC. A new settlement, 
probably made up of farmers, appeared on the eastern part of the hill at 
the beginning of the III millennium. This location, later abandoned for 
more than a millennium, would be reconstructed as a city of the 
{N}Jebusites{/}. It was a city-state as was common in Palestine and which the 
Bible mentioned as one of the seven Canaanite nations which were to be 
conquered [Dt_7,1]. Nothing is known of this period, so to say, except 
for the letters of a king of Jerusalem, Abed-Heba, written in the 
Akkadian language and discovered in the archives of the pharaoh in the 
city of el-Amarna. These provide us information about the relations 
between Egypt and this city in the XIV century BC. From that time date 
the enormous foundations which were necessary to support the fortress of 
this Jebusite city.
{K}TIME OF THE KINGS{/}

At the foot of the eastern slope of the hill, the remnants of an 
Israelite wall four and a half meters long retrace the ancient Jebusite 
wall. This protected the city whose houses were built like stairs rising 
to the top of the hill. Many of these houses have been excavated. One of 
these buildings constructed of hewn stone consisted of four houses and 
was called, "House of Ariel," in name of its owner as an inscription on a 
piece of ceramic tile indicates. Others were called, "The Burned House" 
or "The House of the Globes." In this last one they found 51 white clay 
globes with Hebrew names. Among these, one carried the name of Gemariah, 
Son of Saphan, a high official of King Josiah en 604 BC. His name is 
quoted by the Prophet Jeremiah [Jer_36,9] - [Jer_36,12]. Several pieces 
of ceramic dating from the VIII to the VII century, plus metal and wooden 
objects and little figures of the god of fertility and some seals, give 
us an idea of the culture of that period.
All of these things provide us with traces of the total destruction of 
Jerusalem by the Babylonians. {C}"On the seventh day of the fifth month in 
the nineteenth year of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, Nebuzaradan, 
commander of the bodyguard and servant of the king of Babylon, entered 
Jerusalem and set fire to the House of Yahweh and the royal palace as 
well as to all the houses in Jerusalem"{/} [2K_25,8] - [2K_25,10]. 
{K}NEHEMIAH'S RECONSTRUCTION{/}

When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem in 445 BC to undertake the 
construction of the city, he discovered with sorrow the ruins and the 
state of destruction of the walls. {C}Bringing along only the horse on 
which I rode, I went out by night by the Gate of the Garbage Dump. I 
inspected the ruined wall of Jerusalem and the burned gates. I went on to 
the Fountain Gate and the King's Reservoir, but my horse could not pass 
through anywhere. So I went up, in the night, by the ravine. I inspected 
the wall and turned back, entering by the Valley Gate.
The counselors did not know where I had been or what I was doing...Then I 
said to them, 'You yourselves see the misery we are in because Jerusalem 
lies in ruins and its gates burned. Come, let us rebuild the walls of 
Jerusalem, and put an end to this humiliating situation.' And I recounted 
to them how the good hand of God had helped me...Everyone said, 'Let us 
begin the work.' And they encouraged one another to make this good work a 
reality"{/} [Ne_2,13] - [Ne_2,18].
The most ancient parts of a wall that was reconstructed several times 
date from the time of the return from captivity; it overlooks the ruins 
of the ancient houses.
{K}RESTORATION IN THE MACCABBEAN EPOCH{/}

The battles for independence of the Jewish province and for religious 
freedom fought by the Maccabees against the Seleucids occasioned terrible 
reprisal attacks against the walls of Jerusalem. This necessitated 
repeated repairs: {C}Jonathan took up residence in Jerusalem and began 
rebuilding and restoring the city. He commanded the builders to build the 
walls and the defenses of Mount Zion with hewn stones. And they did so{/} 
[1Mac_10,10] - [1Mac_10,11].
The first book of Maccabees returns to this theme again in chapter 
twelve: {C}On returning, Jonathan summoned the elders of the people. The 
assembly decided to build fortresses in Judea, to make the walls of 
Jerusalem still higher...They also held an assembly to rebuild the 
city...Part of the wall over a rushing stream had fallen{/} [1Mac_12,35] - 
[1Mac_12,37].

{K}- THE FOUNTAIN{/}

Approaching the time of the II millennium BC the Jebusites began the 
construction of their capital, but from the very beginning they were 
faced with the problem of lack of water. This was still in the Bronze Age 
when limed and caulked cisterns had not yet been invented. There were two 
springs: {N}Ein Roguel{/} and {N}Gihon{/}. But the first one, situated where the 
Kidron Valley and the Gehenna meet, was too distant to be defended in 
case of attack.
{K}GIHON SPRING{/}

The three hydraulic cisterns used alternatively to supply water to the 
city all draw from the Gihon Spring, which continues to flow today 
beneath the last step of the stairway leading to it. The water flows at 
intervals, several times a day. The very name of the spring alludes to 
this phenomenon. The Hebrew word, "Gihoni," means, "that which springs 
forth or flows," if one takes as its root "Giha," which is found seven 
times in the Old Testament. The people of ancient times found the 
alternate flowing to be a mysterious phenomenon. In reality it is caused 
by the alternating filling and emptying of a naturally formed siphon 
caused by the formation of the terrain. Because of its location on the 
eastern side of the overhang underneath the City of David, the fountain 
poured out its water into the Kidron Valley.
{K}SOLOMON'S ANOINTING{/}

Gihon Spring provided a context for the royal anointing of Solomon as 
described in the First Book of Kings. King David, now old and sick, 
awaited death in his modest palace far from the intrigues related to the 
succession to his throne. In the meantime, Joab leader of the army, 
Abiathar the high priest, and Adonijah the older brother of Solomon, 
conspired to unseat Solomon and seize the throne. Solomon's mother 
Bathsheba and the Prophet Nathan informed David about this intrigue. The 
old King managed to enforce his authority in a final show of strength and 
ordered the Prophet Nathan and the High Priest Zadok to do the following: 
{C}Take with you the servants of your lord and make my son Solomon ride on 
my own mule. Then bring him down to Gihon and let Zadok the priest and 
Nathan the prophet anoint him there as king of Israel...From now on he 
will be king in my place for I have made him ruler of Israel and Judah{/} 
[1K_1,33] - [1K_1,35]. 

{K}- THE CANALS{/}

The three hydraulic systems fed by Gihon Spring correspond to three 
distinct epochs in Israel's history: Warren's shaft, the Siloam tunnel, 
and Hezekiah's tunnel. 
{K}WARREN'S SHAFT{/}

Recent geological investigations, supported by carbon 14 tests, have 
demonstrated that this subterranean hydraulic system was installed during 
the Jebusite period. The waters flowing through and eroding the limestone 
layer that forms the subsoil under the City of David have caused very 
interesting formations. Humans have ingeniously taken advantage of these 
natural galleries and wells to enlarge, protect and enhance them as a 
means of guaranteeing their own protection.
Warren's Shaft takes its name from the archeologist who discovered this 
first subterranean water network in 1867. The shaft permitted access to 
the spring from inside the city in case of siege, since the spring itself 
was located outside the walls. This hydraulic system consists of a short, 
irregular and almost horizontal tunnel that brings water from Gihon 
Spring to the base of a vertical well 14 meters high. In order to access 
the top of the well, the inhabitants of Jerusalem used a tunnel whose 
entrance was found inside the walls. The first descent of the well was so 
steep that steps had to be carved into the rock itself. The next slope 
became more moderate so that the inhabitants of the city could easily 
draw out water from the well, using the accustomed system of  pulleys, 
ropes and water bags. This combination of tunnel and well is an excellent 
example of what a "sinnor"-conduit is. Such complicated systems for 
drawing out water were found in Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer.
{K}DAVID CAPTURES JERUSALEM{/}

When David was proclaimed king by the Ancients of Judah as well as being 
recognized by the tribes of Israel, he decided to establish his capital 
on neutral ground-between the two blocks of tribes, north and south. He 
set his eyes on the Jebusite city of Jerusalem, and he conquered it.
The biblical narration tells us that David said: {C}"Whoever wants to 
defeat the Jebusites...let him reach these enemies of David through the 
tunnel for fetching water"{/} [2S_5,8]. Joab entered by the entrance at 
Gihon Spring, taking advantage of the subterranean gallery that leads to 
the base of the cavity of Warren's shaft. The scaling of the wall posed 
no problem due to the roughness of the rocky walls. This permitted him to 
ascend the inclined tunnel which was designed to have access to the 
water, and then to emerge by the opening that leads into the Ophel.
{K}SILOAM (SHILOAH) TUNNEL{/}

The Siloam canal is an aqueduct built, by way of exception, as an open 
canal. Almost everywhere else canals are constructed inside of tunnels. 
Carved out of the rock, this aqueduct also has its source in the spring 
of Gihon and flows south along the eastern slope of the city below the 
walls. The water is led from the spring to the edge of the Tyropoeon 
Valley where it forms a small square: "the old {N}pool{/}" [Is_22,11] or "the 
lower pool" [Is_22,9], a large pond which today has been transformed into 
a place of luxuriant vegetation.
This aqueduct irrigated the nearby fields of Kidron Valley by means of 
openings made in its canal walls. Some of these openings are still 
visible today. If this canal is identified with the "Shiloah" mentioned 
in [Is_8,5], we can date it with the reign of Ahaz.
It is probable that it was on this spot that Isaiah pronounced in the 
presence of Ahaz the celebrated prophecy of the maiden who would give 
birth: {C}"The Lord himself will give you a sign: The maiden who is with 
child will bear a son and call his name Immanuel, that is, 'God-with-
us'"{/} [Is_7,14] - [Is_7,16]. 
Here the prophet also threatened the unbelieving king: {C}"This people is 
more frightened of the kings of Damascus and Samaria, and refuses to 
listen to the gently flowing waters of Siloam. Therefore, the Lord will 
bring against then the waters of the River Euphrates-the king of Assyria 
with all his pomp" {/}[Is_8,6] - [Is_8,7]. Israel has ignored the loving 
protection of God and instead has put its confidence in King Tiglath-
pileser, on whom King Ahaz has called for aid. So be it then, the 
Assyrian will come like a devastating river, a flooding torrent that will 
surely annihilate the enemies of Judah. Nevertheless, this invader will 
force the oppressive yoke of its fearful power on the small Reign of the 
South.
{K}HEZEKIAH'S TUNNEL{/}

In the VIII century BC Hezekiah, King of Judah, undertook a grandiose and 
creative construction without equal in any of the contemporary countries 
of the Middle East at a time when Sennacherib and his army were 
threatening to attack Jerusalem. Hezekiah built the tunnel in order to 
assure the defense of Jerusalem and the supply of water for its 
inhabitants. This work is justifiably famous because it allowed Jerusalem 
to resist the siege of 701 BC until the day of its miraculous liberation. 
{C}When Hezekiah realized that Sennacherib intended to attack Jerusalem, he 
summoned his officers and champions and they decided to cut off the water 
supply from the springs situated outside the city...They said, "Why 
should the king of Assyria find plenty of water when he arrives?"{/} 
[2Chr_32,2] - [2Chr_32,4]. Then Hezekiah closed the upper opening of the 
waters of Gihon and redirected them underground to the western part of 
the City [2Chr_32,30]. 
Hezekiah's Tunnel made use of the existing gallery carrying the water 
from the spring of Gihon to the base of Warren's Shaft. From there the 
water makes its way underground the full length of the City of David 
until it pours into the Pool of Siloam at the extreme lower end of the 
Tyropoeon Valley. By the construction of the new tunnel and the Pool of 
Siloam, Hezekiah intended to provide a protected water supply to the 
south of the Ophel. It is possible that Hezekiah may also have built a 
wall to protect the new reservoir, and such designs are indicated in all 
of the best plans of Old Jerusalem. However, no remnant of such a wall 
has ever been found, which means that it never existed!
{K}COURAGEOUS EXCAVATION{/}

The excavation of the tunnel was a true adventure. Two teams of 
excavators began digging at opposite extremes and met more or less in the 
middle at a point in the tunnel which can easily be identified today. 
Nevertheless, that meeting was not without risks and difficulties. They 
carved the following inscription on the stone wall to commemorate that 
historic day: 
"The excavation was cut in the following manner...while they were digging 
with axes, each man toward his fellowman, and while there were still 
three cubits of earth to be cut through, the voice of one man calling to 
the others was heard, showing that he was deviating to the right. When 
the tunnel was driven through, the excavators met man to man, axe to axe, 
and the water flowed for 1,200 cubits from the spring to the reservoir. 
The height of the rock above the heads of the excavators was 100 cubits."
At the final stage before the breakthrough, both teams of excavators 
undoubtedly guided themselves by the sound of the voices of the others, 
as they searched for one another. This explains the failed attempts 
visible to either side before finally meeting one another. It is also 
possible that the miners encountered harder stones which necessitated 
changing direction. This would explain the reason for the S-curve in the 
central part of the tunnel. Hezekiah's Tunnel empties into the Pool of 
Siloam, the upper pool [Is_36,2], a new reservoir that should not be 
confused with the lower pool.
{K}THE POOL OF SILOAM (SHILOAH){/}

The Feast of Tabernacles is celebrated at the beginning of autumn before 
the coming of the first rain. The priests descended every day to the Pool 
of Siloam to draw water in a golden pitcher which they then poured as a 
libation over the altar of the Temple. The pilgrims externalized their 
celebration of this feast, each waving his "lulab" which is a palm branch 
interlaced with willow and myrtle cuttings to which a citron is attached 
(a type of green lemon). As the pilgrims waved these, they sang the Great 
Hallel (psalms 113 - 118 according to the Hebrew enumeration). Four 
golden candelabra, lit in the court of the women, illuminated the city. 
It was simultaneously the feast of water and of light to which 
[Ps_118,26] gave a messianic connotation: {C}"Blessed is he who comes in 
the name of the Lord."{/}

The cure of the man born blind was described in the Gospel according to 
John in this liturgical and messianic context. John added a notation on 
this occasion that "Siloam" means "sent" [Jn_9,7]. After Jesus had 
covered the blind man's eyes with mud, he sent him to wash in a pool that 
literally means the place of the one who is "sent." Jesus is the one sent 
by God who proclaims: {C}"I am the light of the world. He who follows me 
will not walk in darkness, but will have light and life"{/} [Jn_8,12).
It is in this context of the procession of the water where we should read 
the promise to give living water. {C}On the last and greatest day of the 
festival, Jesus stood up and proclaimed, "If any one is thirsty, let him 
come to me; and let him who believes in me drink, for the Scripture says: 
Out of him shall flow rivers of living water." Jesus was referring to the 
Spirit which those who believe in him were to receive; the Spirit had not 
yet been given because Jesus had not yet entered into his Glory{/}" 
[Jn_7,37] - [Jn_7,39].
{K}GEHENNA{/}

The Valley of Gehenna is situated on the south side of Jerusalem between 
Mount Zion and Mount of Evil Counsel, and from there Gehenna ends in 
Kidron Valley at the foot of the village of Silwan. When the territories 
were being partitioned among the tribes, Gehenna demarcated the boundary 
between the territories of Judah and Benjamin: {C}The southern border 
ran...through the Valley of Hinnom, south of the mountainside of the 
Jebusites and reached Ein-Roguel {/}[Jos_18,16]. Traditionally in the New 
Testament this place is called the Valley of Gehenna. However, in the 
Israelite period it is known as: Gue Ben Hinom (Valley of the Son of 
Hinom). Most likely this name refers to some well known Jebusite or 
Canaanite.
{K}TOPHETH{/}

This valley owes its sad name to the Canaanite practice of child 
sacrifice on this spot. Later, worship was offered to the god Molech by 
idolatrous Israelites, as numerous Old Testament texts indicate. For 
example, King Ahaz (who ruled over Judah from 735-716 BC) {C}walked in the 
way of the kings of Israel and even sacrificed his son in the fire, 
according to the hateful practices of these nations which Yahweh had 
expelled from the land, so the children of Israel could occupy their 
place{/} [2K_16,13] - [2K_16,14]. In fact, excavations have uncovered 
sarcophagi of carbonized children. Such is the association that Topheth 
has in the Old Testament. In the New Testament it served as a symbol of 
the condemned.
The prophets vehemently condemned the barbarous practices of their day: 
{C}Hear the word of Yahweh, kings of Judah and citizens of Jerusalem! It is 
Yahweh the God of hosts and the God of Israel who speaks. I am about to 
send a disaster on this place that will make the ears of those who hear 
it tingle. Here they have forsaken me, offering incense to foreign gods 
that neither they, their fathers nor the kings of Judah have known. They 
have profaned this place filling it with innocent blood. They have built 
high places to Baal where they burn their children in fire. That is why 
the days will come when this place will no longer be called Topheth or 
the Valley of Ben Hinnom, but the Valley of Slaughter{/} [Jer_19,3] - 
[Jer_19,6].
{K}HACELDAMA{/}

The Greek Orthodox convent of St. Onofre in Gehenna consecrates the place 
that tradition since the IV century designates as "the Field of Blood." 
In the gospel accounts, "Haceldama," "the Field of Blood," substituted 
the primitive name of "Potter's Field", indicating where Judas returned 
the money of betrayal. {C}The priests picked up the money, and said, 'This 
money cannot be put into the Temple treasury, for this is the price of 
blood.' So they met together and decided to buy the Potter's Field with 
the money and make it a cemetery called Field of Blood to this day{/}.
This was almost a fulfillment of the words of the Prophet Zechariah: 
"They weighed out thirty pieces of silver..." [Zec_11,12]. 
